The sestina is a highly structured and complex poetic form with deep historical roots, originating in the medieval Provençal region of France. Attributed to the troubadour Arnaut Daniel in the 12th century, it later gained prominence when admired and adopted by the Italian poet Dante Alighieri. This intricate form, demanding significant skill from the poet, involves the repetition and permutation of six key end-words across six stanzas, culminating in a shorter envoi.
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Unlike many other strict forms of the era, such as the villanelle or rondeau, the original sestina was not defined by rhyme scheme. Its rigor lies solely in the meticulous ordering of the end-words.
Understanding the Classic Sestina Pattern
The core of the sestina lies in its unique pattern of end-word repetition. The poem consists of six stanzas, each with six lines (sestets), followed by a final three-line stanza called an envoi or tornada. Six specific words are chosen as the end-words for the lines of the first stanza. Let’s label these words A, B, C, D, E, and F.
The pattern for the first stanza is simply:
A B C D E F
The magic of the sestina unfolds in the subsequent stanzas. The end-words for each new stanza are derived by rotating the end-words of the previous stanza in a specific sequence. Starting with the last end-word (F), the sequence alternates between the last remaining word and the first remaining word from the previous pattern.
Applying this to the first stanza’s pattern (A B C D E F), we get the second stanza’s pattern:
F A E B D C
This pattern continues for all six stanzas. A visual representation can often make this intricate rotation clearer:
Diagram illustrating the sestina end-word rotation pattern
Following this method, the complete pattern for the six stanzas emerges:
- Stanza 1: A B C D E F
- Stanza 2: F A E B D C
- Stanza 3: C F D A B E
- Stanza 4: E C B F A D
- Stanza 5: D E A C F B
- Stanza 6: B D F E C A
The final three-line envoi uses all six of the original end-words. Traditionally, each line of the envoi ends with one of the six words and includes another within the line. A strict traditional pattern is:
(B) E, (D) C, (A) F
However, since the 19th century, poets have adopted variations for the envoi, often making it (A) B, (C) D, (E) F or (F) A, (E) B, (D) C. The key is that all six words must appear in the envoi, either at the end or within the line.
Sestinas are also typically metered poems. While any consistent meter can be used, iambic pentameter is a common choice in English poetry, lending a natural rhythm to the lines as the end-words recur.
Variations: The Rhyming Sestina
While the original sestina is unrhymed, a variation known as the Circular or Rhyming Sestina emerged in the 19th century. This form introduces rhyme by creating two sets of three rhyming end-words. Lines A, C, and E might rhyme with each other, while lines B, D, and F rhyme with each other.
To accommodate this rhyme structure, a different end-word rotation pattern is used:
- Stanza 1: A B C D E F
- Stanza 2: F A D E B C
- Stanza 3: C F E B A D
- Stanza 4: D C B A F E
- Stanza 5: E D A F C B
- Stanza 6: B E F C D A
The envoi for the rhyming sestina typically follows a pattern like (A) F, (B) E, (C) D, ensuring all six rhyming groups are represented.
Analyzing an Example: Elizabeth Bishop’s ‘Sestina’
The sestina, despite its medieval origins, has seen resurgences in popularity throughout literary history, notably in the 20th century. It is often employed to explore a subject in depth, with the repeating words acting as recurring motifs or obsessions that circle back through the poem.
Elizabeth Bishop’s “Sestina” is a well-known modern example that follows the classic pattern, though she takes some liberties with strict meter. The poem uses the end-words: house, light, grandmother, child, stove, tears. Notice how these concrete, emotionally charged words create a sense of domestic intimacy and underlying sorrow.
September rain falls on the house.
In the failing light,
the old grandmother sits in the kitchen with the child
beside the Little Marvel Stove,
reading the jokes from the almanac,
laughing and talking to hide her tears.
She thinks that her equinoctial tears
and the rain that beats on the roof of the house
were both foretold by the almanac,
but only known to a grandmother.
The iron kettle sings on the stove.
She cuts some bread and says to the child,
It’s time for tea now; but the child
is watching the teakettle’s small hard tears
dance like mad on the hot black stove,
the way the rain must dance on the house.
Tidying up, the old grandmother
hangs up the clever almanac
on its string. Birdlike, the almanac
hovers half open above the child,
hovers above the old grandmother
and her teacup full of dark brown tears.
She shivers and says she thinks the house
feels chilly, and puts more wood in the stove.
It was to be, says the Marvel Stove.
I know what I know, says the almanac.
With crayons the child draws a rigid house
and a winding pathway. Then the child
puts in a man with buttons like tears
and shows it proudly to the grandmother.
But secretly, while the grandmother
busies herself about the stove,
the little moons fall down like tears
from between the pages of the almanac
into the flower bed the child
has carefully placed in the front of the house.
Time to plant tears, says the almanac.
The grandmother sings to the marvelous stove
and the child draws another inscrutable house.Bishop masterfully weaves a narrative thread through the strict form, allowing the repeating words to deepen the themes of hidden sadness, domestic life, and the differing perspectives of the child and grandmother. The recurring words take on new shades of meaning and emotional weight with each appearance.
Your Guide to Crafting a Sestina
Writing a sestina is undoubtedly challenging, but it can be a deeply rewarding exercise in poetic craft and sustained exploration of a subject. Many poets find that the rigidity of the form paradoxically helps to unlock creativity by forcing unexpected connections between ideas as the end-words recur. The form is well-suited for telling a story or exploring a theme from multiple angles, as the fixed words draw certain ideas back into focus repeatedly.
Here is a process you can follow to tackle this form:
- Choose Your Subject: Select a topic, person, or situation that you know well or find particularly compelling. Because the sestina requires developing a theme across many lines while constrained by fixed words, a subject with complexity or an inherent narrative works well.
- Select Your Six End-Words: This is arguably the most crucial step. Choose six words that are significant to your subject and offer potential for varied meaning or context throughout the poem. They should ideally be nouns, verbs, or adjectives that can function in different ways or represent key concepts. Think about images, emotions, or central ideas related to your subject and pick six words that encapsulate them.
- Decide on Meter (Optional but Recommended): While the classic sestina is metered, modern sestinas are sometimes free verse. However, working within a meter adds another layer of structure and can help maintain rhythm and flow. Iambic pentameter is a common choice, but feel free to experiment with other meters that fit the tone of your subject.
- Map Out the Structure: Write down the pattern of end-words for all six stanzas and the envoi (using letters A-F or the words themselves). This visual guide is essential as you write.
- Write Stanza by Stanza: Begin writing the first stanza, ensuring each line ends with your chosen words in the correct order (A B C D E F). Then, move to the second stanza, using the end-words in the F A E B D C pattern, building upon the ideas or narrative established in the first stanza. Continue this process for all six stanzas.
- Craft the Envoi: Finally, write the three-line envoi, incorporating all six end-words according to your chosen pattern (or a variation), ensuring they appear at the end of lines and/or within the lines as required. The envoi often provides a sense of conclusion, summary, or final reflection on the recurring themes.
- Revise and Refine: Once the draft is complete, revise for meter (if used), word choice, imagery, and clarity. Ensure the recurring end-words feel integrated naturally and contribute to the poem’s meaning, rather than feeling forced. Pay attention to the flow between stanzas and the poem’s overall progression.
Remember, the constraint of the form can be a powerful tool. Let the required end-words guide your thinking in unexpected directions and uncover new layers in your subject matter.
An Original Example: ‘The Job’
The following sestina, written by Dusty Grein, demonstrates the process described above, using the end-words ‘Job,’ ‘Badge,’ ‘Protect,’ ‘Crime,’ ‘Report,’ and ‘Night’ to tell a story about a homicide detective. It follows the classic sestina pattern with a specific meter choice (amphibrachic tetrameter catalectic, an eleven-syllable rhythm).
**The Job**
*By Dusty Grein*
It feels like forever I’ve been on the job.
Pinned down by the weight of my gun and my badge;
my duty is etched there, to serve and protect.
The uniforms tape off the scene of the crime
at this point, there still isn’t much to report,
It promises to be one hell of a night.
My partner and I will work into the night;
It’s on days like this I truly hate my job.
The worst part of all is the daily report,
Complete with the number and name from my badge
I lay out the facts of a hideous crime.
The victim is gone; one we failed to protect.
Now my reputation I have to protect.
From hero to scapegoat – it just takes one night;
a free-roaming villain, or one unsolved crime.
To close every case is the goal of the job,
the reason each day that I put on the badge.
I wish I could put that inside the report.
The televised anchors all love to report
to viewers – the public I’ve sworn to protect –
The slightest mistake by one who wears the badge.
The airwaves are filled with bad news every night,
I wish that good news was a part of their job
Like how, with hard work, we usually solve the crime.
I shudder recalling details from this crime;
gunfire – In my mind, I hear its report.
Deductive pretending is part of my job.
Sometimes sanity becomes hard to protect
when facing this ugliness night after night.
Emotions grow cold when you’re wearing the badge.
My life? A lot simpler before the gold badge.
Back then it was mostly stopping petty crime,
And helping my neighbors sleep better at night.
I still had to fill out each detailed report,
the public I still did my best to protect;
promotions happen when you’re good at your job.
“Now, wearing my badge is more than just a job,”
I repeat this each night as I write my report.
“By solving these crimes, my whole world I protect.”This example illustrates how the recurring end-words can drive the narrative and explore the emotional and professional burdens faced by the speaker. The repetition reinforces key themes of duty, danger, and the constant struggle against crime.
The Enduring Power of the Sestina
The sestina, with its demanding structure, remains a testament to the poet’s craft. It is a form that challenges writers to think deeply about the relationship between form and content, allowing recurring words to resonate and accumulate meaning throughout the poem. While it requires patience and dedication, successfully crafting a sestina can produce a work of remarkable depth and resonance, demonstrating the enduring power of structured verse to explore complex human experiences. Engaging with the sestina is an invitation to a rigorous dance of words, where repetition gives rise to profound variation.