On July 8, 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States Navy sailed his four black ships into Edo Bay (now Tokyo Bay), marking a pivotal moment in Japanese and American history. This event, often referred to as the “opening of Japan,” ended over two centuries of Japanese isolation and ushered in a new era of trade and diplomatic relations with the West. While Perry is often credited with this feat, it’s crucial to understand the complex historical context surrounding his arrival and the lasting impact of Commodore Perry to Japan.
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Perry’s expedition wasn’t the first Western contact with Japan. Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch traders had established trade routes with Japan in the 16th and 17th centuries. However, growing concerns over European influence, particularly the spread of Catholicism and perceived unfair trading practices, led to the Sakoku Edict of 1639. This edict effectively closed Japan to the outside world, limiting trade primarily to the Dutch and Chinese under strict regulations.
Several factors spurred renewed American interest in Japan during the mid-19th century. The opening of Chinese ports and the American acquisition of California created a burgeoning trans-Pacific trade route. The transition from sail to steam power necessitated coaling stations along these routes, and Japan’s strategic location, coupled with rumors of abundant coal reserves, made it an attractive prospect. Furthermore, the growing American whaling industry in the North Pacific required safe harbors and provisions, adding to the pressure for establishing relations with Japan. Reports of shipwrecked American sailors mistreated by the Japanese further fueled the desire for official contact.
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American expansionism, driven by Manifest Destiny and economic interests, also played a significant role. Many Americans believed in their duty to “civilize” other nations, including Japan. Missionaries saw an opportunity to spread Protestant Christianity, while others argued that opening Japan to global trade would benefit both countries, even if by force.
Prior American attempts to engage with Japan, including missions from the U.S. Navy’s Far Eastern squadron in Canton, had been rebuffed. In 1851, President Millard Fillmore authorized a formal expedition led by Commodore John Aulick. However, Aulick was replaced by Matthew Perry, a seasoned naval officer with a distinguished record.
Before arriving in Edo Bay, Perry visited the Ryukyus and Bonin Islands, asserting American claims and demanding assistance. He carried a letter from President Fillmore addressed to the Emperor of Japan, reflecting a Western misunderstanding of Japanese governance, where the Shogun held true power.
Perry’s arrival with a squadron of warships was a deliberate show of force, intended to persuade the Japanese to accept Western trade. He also brought gifts showcasing Western technology, including a model steam locomotive, a telegraph, and a telescope, further emphasizing Western superiority. His mission was to secure protection for shipwrecked Americans and open Japanese ports for supplies and refueling.
The following year, Perry returned with a larger fleet to receive Japan’s response. The Japanese, aware of Western military power, reluctantly agreed to the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854. This treaty provided for the protection of shipwrecked Americans and opened two ports, Shimoda and Hakodate, for provisioning American ships. It also granted the U.S. the right to appoint consuls, a significant diplomatic step. While not a full commercial treaty, it included a most-favored-nation clause, paving the way for future trade agreements.
Townsend Harris, the first U.S. consul to Japan, arrived in Shimoda in 1856. Lacking Perry’s naval backing, Harris faced a tougher negotiation process. However, news of British military action in China influenced the Japanese to agree to a full commercial treaty with the U.S. in 1858, known as the Harris Treaty. Other Western powers soon followed suit, establishing their own treaties with Japan.
The opening of Japan, though initially forced, led to rapid modernization, particularly in military technology, establishing Japan as a major power in the Pacific. It also contributed to the decline of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the Meiji Restoration of 1868, which returned power to the Emperor, fundamentally transforming Japan’s political landscape. Commodore Perry’s voyage to Japan, while controversial, undeniably initiated a period of profound change for both nations.