Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy opens with inferno canto 1, a canto that functions as a universal prelude, establishing the core premises and metaphors that will underpin the entire hundred-canto journey. It is here that the reader is introduced to the pilgrim Dante lost in the dark wood, setting the stage for an epic voyage through the afterlife that is simultaneously a profound allegory of human life and salvation. This initial canto lays the groundwork for the poem’s extraordinary project of creating a vivid virtual reality, inviting the reader to suspend disbelief and embark on the journey alongside the protagonist.
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One of the fundamental ways Inferno Canto 1 establishes this reality is by embedding the narrative within a specific cosmic and temporal framework. Dante links the rising sun to the primordial moment of creation: “‘l sol montava ’n su con quelle stelle / ch’eran con lui quando l’amor divino / mosse di prima quelle cose belle” (the sun was rising now in fellowship / with the same stars that had escorted it / when Divine Love first moved those things of beauty [Inf. 1.38-40]). This passage places the commencement of the journey in springtime, specifically when the sun is in Aries, traditionally believed to be the time of the universe’s creation. This detail is not merely temporal; it connects the micro-event of the pilgrim’s plight to the macro-event of cosmic origin.
Beyond cosmology, this passage also highlights the aesthetic dimension of creation. God made cose belle—things of beauty—establishing a link between the ground of being and the ground of aesthetics. The adjective “belle” appears for the first time in the Commedia here (Inf. 1.40), clustered with other forms of bello in the opening cantos, including a reference to Dante’s own poetic style: “lo bello stilo” (Inf. 1.87). Thus, Inferno Canto 1 features both the beauty of the universe and the beauty of Dante’s art, underscoring that being (reality) and its representation in poetry proceed in tandem throughout the poem.
Structurally, Inferno Canto 1 is often considered an “extra” canto, distinct from the 33 cantos of Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. This makes it a fitting prelude to the entire work, outlining the three realms of the afterlife schematically in verses 114-129. Verses 114-117 describe Hell, 118-120 describe Purgatory, and 121-129 describe Paradise. This section provides a blueprint for the whole 100-canto structure, suggesting that Dante had the overall architecture of the poem conceived, at least in broad strokes, when he composed this introductory canto. The Commedia is one of the world’s most popular long poems, and its immense scope is hinted at from its very beginning.
A signal characteristic of Dante’s Commedia, evident from its opening lines, is the mixing of classical and Christian sources, as well as high and low cultural elements. Dante draws upon informed theological thought and popular iconography of the Christian afterlife but also incorporates pagan sources like Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics and Virgil’s Aeneid. This unique blend contributes to a richly layered textuality.
The poem’s first verse, “Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita” (Midway upon the journey of our life [Inf. 1.1]), perfectly encapsulates this cultural imbrication. “Nel mezzo” has long been recognized as echoing both Isaiah 38:10 (“In the middle of my days I must depart”) and Horace’s Ars Poetica (“in medias res,” to begin in the midst of things). However, a deeper analysis reveals further layers, particularly through the lens of Aristotle, whose philosophy profoundly influenced Dante.
Two Aristotelian texts resonate with the phrase “Nel mezzo.” Firstly, in the Physics, Aristotle describes time as “a kind of middle-point, uniting in itself both a beginning and an end, a beginning of future time and an end of past time” (Physics 8.1.251b18–26). Dante explicitly cites Aristotle on time in his earlier philosophical work, Convivio. Beginning the Commedia with “Nel mezzo” evokes this Aristotelian understanding of our existential state within time, tethered to the “number of movement, according to before and after.”
Secondly, and perhaps more significantly given the word mezzo itself, is Aristotle’s discussion of virtue in the Nicomachean Ethics. For Aristotle, virtue resides at the mean (mezzo) between two vicious extremes. Dante had already engaged deeply with this concept in his canzone Le dolci rime, where he translates the Aristotelian mean as mezzo: “un abito eligente / lo qual dimora in mezzo solamente” (a “habit of choosing which keeps steadily to the mean” [Le dolci rime, 85–87]). This ethical mezzo is fundamental to Dante’s thought, shaping his understanding of human behavior not as a simple binary but as a spectrum where moderation is key. Both the metaphysical (time) and moral (virtue) dimensions of Aristotle’s mezzo enrich the opening verse of the Commedia.
The opening metaphor of life as a “cammin di nostra vita” (journey of our life) establishes the poem as a shared human experience. Like the “nuovo e mai non fatto cammino di questa vita” (the new and never before traveled path of this life) from Convivio (4.12.15), the path of life is unique to each individual but universally experienced. This terrestrial metaphor is soon complemented by the simile of a voyager lost at sea, a shipwrecked man struggling to shore (Inf. 1.22-24). This introduces the Ulyssean motif, referencing the mythic hero Odysseus (Ulysses in Latin), known from Virgil’s Aeneid. Ulysses, the quintessential voyager who comes to ruin, serves as a potential negative double for Dante-pilgrim.
The pilgrim’s lost state is explicit: “ché la diritta via era smarrita” (for the straight way was lost [Inf. 1.3]). He has not just wandered but actively abandoned the true path: “la verace via abbandonai” (I abandoned the true path [Inf. 1.12]). Seeking a way forward, he arrives at the foot of a hill, its shoulders illuminated by the sun, “that same planet which serves to lead men straight along all roads” (Inf. 1.17-18).
Attempting to climb this “delightful mountain” (Inf. 1.77), the pilgrim is repeatedly driven back by three beasts: a leopard (lonza), a lion (leone), and finally, a she-wolf (lupa). Traditionally, these beasts symbolize lust, pride, and avarice, representing the major impediments to spiritual progress.
The lupa is particularly significant for Dante’s pervasive theme of desire. Recalled later in Purgatorio for her “fame sanza fine cupa” (dark hunger without end [Purg. 20.10-12]), the she-wolf embodies cupiditas, negative desire. In Convivio, desire is defined as a “manifest lack” (Conv. 3.15.3). The lupa, heavy “with all longings” (“di tutte brame” [Inf. 1.49]) and “sanza pace” (without peace [Inf. 1.58]), perpetually hungry even after feeding, exemplifies this defective desire, an insatiable craving that prevents peace and spiritual advancement.
Desire, while potentially leading astray, is also defined in Purgatorio as “moto spiritale” (spiritual motion [Purg. 18.31–32]), the imperative toward motion to fill a perceived lack. For Dante, desire itself is not inherently evil but must be regulated by reason. The concept of misura (measure or moderation), rooted in Aristotle’s mezzo, becomes crucial, representing the ethical mean that keeps desire properly directed.
The arrival of the Roman poet Virgilio in verse 62 structurally divides Inferno Canto 1. The first part, a dream-like landscape of mythic binaries (up/down, light/dark), shifts with Virgilio’s entrance to a more historical and grounded narrative atmosphere. Virgilio, who identifies himself as born “sub Julio” (under Julius Caesar [Inf. 1.70]), immediately situates the poem within the flow of human history, moving from the mythic exordium toward the historical realism for which the Commedia is known.
Curiously, Dante-poet constructs the scene such that the terrifying lupa remains present during the initial dialogue between the pilgrim and Virgilio, an unrealistic detail highlighting the persistence of the impediment even as help appears. The pilgrim’s reaction upon meeting the shade is one of overwhelming awe and love for the author of the Aeneid, momentarily eclipsing his immediate danger from the wolf. This focus on the identity of the poet, rather than begging for immediate rescue, generates narrative complexity and reveals the depth of Dante’s reverence for classical antiquity.
Virgilio explains the nature of the lupa as an insurmountable obstacle (“che del bel monte il corto andar ti tolse” – that barred the shortest way up the fair mountain [Inf. 2.120]), necessitating a longer path through the afterlife realms. He outlines this journey and reveals that another guide will eventually replace him: “con lei ti lascerò nel mio partire” (With her at my departure I will leave thee [Inf. 1.123]). This line, seemingly minor at this point in Inferno 1, serves as a benchmark for Dante-poet’s ability to conjure deep emotional affect. The pilgrim in Inferno 1 shows little concern for this future departure, but by Purgatorio 30, Virgilio’s leaving causes profound distress, demonstrating the transformative power of their relationship built over time and text. This capacity to create emotional connection helps readers to understand poetry on a deeper level, resonating with the characters’ experiences.
Dante’s engagement with classical culture, embodied by his choice of Virgil as guide, is authentic and complex. While he views the classical era as living “nel tempo de li dèi falsi e bugiardi” (in the time of the false and lying gods [Inf. 1.72]), he also expresses “lungo studio e ’l grande amore / che m’ha fatto cercar lo tuo volume” (long study and the intense love / that made me search your volume [Inf. 1.83-84]). This paradoxical stance reflects a genuine veneration (an early form of humanism) alongside a Christian concern for its non-Christian nature, a characteristic “both/and” typical of Dante.
The honor bestowed upon Virgil is underscored by Dante’s specific use of key terms like poeta (poet), saggio (sage), volume (volume, book), and autore (author). Volume and autore are primarily applied to Virgil and, later, to God, elevating Virgil to an almost unique status among created beings. The word poeta, however, traces a poetic lineage from Virgil to Statius and ultimately to Dante himself, marking an arc of poetic history and the succession of literary authority. Dante’s Commedia stands as one of the world’s most famous works, cementing his place in this lineage.
Roman history itself penetrates the narrative, linking the past sacrifices for “umile Italia” (Inf. 1.106) to the contemporary political landscape. The heroes of Virgil’s Aeneid who died for Italy are directly connected to the need for Italy to be rescued in Dante’s own time, as lamented later in Purgatorio 6. This suture of Roman past and Italian present mirrors the link between Roman poetry (the Aeneid) and contemporary Italian poetry (Dante’s “bello stilo”).
Astronomical diagram illustrating Inferno 1.37-40
Astronomical diagram illustrating Inferno 1.37-40
In conclusion, Inferno Canto 1 is far more than a simple introduction; it is a microcosm of the entire Divine Comedy. It skillfully blends myth and history, Christian theology and classical philosophy, establishing the central metaphor of life as a journey impeded by misdirected desire. Through the figure of Virgilio, it introduces the crucial role of reason and classical wisdom in the path towards salvation, setting up the complex relationship between the pilgrim, his guide, and ultimately, Divine Love—the love that moves the sun and the other stars. This canto invites readers into a world where the historical, the allegorical, and the deeply personal converge, promising a journey of unparalleled artistic and spiritual depth.
Recommended Citation
Barolini, Teodolinda. “Inferno 1: Myth Meets History, Isaiah Meets Aristotle.” Commento Baroliniano, Digital Dante. New York, NY: Columbia University Libraries, 2018. https://digitaldante.columbia.edu/dante/divine-comedy/inferno/inferno-1/